Chapter 10 page 2

THE AMERICAN ENGLISH EXPRESS Chapter 10 page 1

Especially Troublesome Grammar

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4. Prepositions

Prepositions include the words ‘to’, ‘for’, ‘with’, ‘by’, ‘on’, ‘in’, ‘of’, ‘through’ and ‘from’, among others. They can be very troublesome, as certain prepositions belong with certain verbs.

For example, I tell my students we can:

a. ‘talk to’ someone; as when I address you as your teacher in this book

b. ‘talk with’ someone, as when you and a friend discuss something

c. ‘talk of’ someone, as when I talk about Socrates and Plato

d. ‘talk for’ someone, as when you represent another person

But we cannot:

a. ‘talk through’ someone

b. ‘talk by’ someone

c. ‘talk from’ someone

d. ‘talk in’ someone

e. ‘talk on’ someone

Although they can be used as slang expressions, these constructions do not have a place in formal grammar.

Another example is that we can

‘sit on’ something, meaning ‘to place oneself upon’, as in “please sit on the chair”.

‘sit in’ something, also meaning ‘to place oneself upon’, as in “please sit in the chair”.

‘sit by’ something, meaning ‘to place oneself down next to or alongside’

‘sit with’ someone, also meaning ‘to place oneself down next to or alongside’

‘sit for’ someone, meaning ‘take the place of someone’

‘sit through’ something, meaning to ‘endure something’

But we cannot

‘sit from’ someone or something
‘sit to’ something or someone
‘sit of’ someone or something

The better grammar handbooks will contain a list of the most common prepositions and their correct usage. Look it up!

5. Articles: “a”, “an” and “the”

In English, we constantly use these articles. We almost never use a noun without an article. Many new English speakers have difficulty with articles. Here my advice is, when in doubt include the article!

a. The article “a” is called the ‘indefinite’ article in that it does not signify a specific item but rather refers to any of the type indicated.

For example: “a dog” indicates any dog, regardless of size, shape, breed, or any other characteristics of the animal.

Note: “A’ changes to “an” before a vowel, as in ‘an article’, ‘an oven’ or ‘an idiot’.

b. The article ‘the’ is called the definite article in that it signifies a specific item.

For example: “the dog” indicates a specific dog. Not just any dog, but the particular dog that is being discussed or written about.

Or ‘the’ can indicate ‘the category of all dogs’, as in the sentence:

“The dog is a four legged animal.”

6. Denotation and connotation: Literal and figurative meaning.

As we have seen, English language words can have different meanings depending on how they are used. This is called the ‘literal meaning’ of a word. Essentially, this is the 'factual', 'exact', or 'accurate' dictionary definition. This is also called the ‘denotation; of the word, the ‘sense’, ‘import’, ‘gist’ (slang), ‘significance’, ‘implication’, or ‘substance’ of the meaning of the word.

However, English words (and sometimes expressions) often also have another type of meaning, called ‘figurative meaning’. This is the ‘symbolic’ or 'abstract' meaning of the term. This is also called the ‘connotation’ of the word, meaning ‘suggestion’, ‘implication’, ‘nuance’, ‘undertone’, ‘association’, ‘subtext’, or ‘overtone’ of the meaning of the word.

For example, the emotions that are associated with a word are part of the connotation.

For example, when two people are ‘in love’, the dictionary (denotation) definition is that these two people feel ‘great affection for’ each other.

Yet, as people who have experienced love, we know that love is one of the two things (besides money) that can drive people crazy (that is, make them do things they ordinarily would not do). Therefore, the denotation does not do the word justice.

The connotation of the word involves the fact that people who are in love may well act differently, even if it merely means that their mood or the way they relate to the rest of the world is different.

7. Idioms, Proverbs, Aphorisms, Clichés

There are a multitude of these expressions in the English language. Most grammar texts have a section listing the most common.

As a writer, you should avoid the clichés and try to develop your own words to express your thoughts and observations. As a reader, you need to recognize and understand all these expressions.

Idioms are expressions that are unique to a specific language.

For example, take the sentence, “Weakness in spelling is that student’s Achilles’ heel.”

In order to understand the meaning of the sentence, you must understand the idiom “Achilles’ heel”. This term means ‘weakness’, ‘vulnerability’, 'weak point', 'weak spot', vulnerable spot' or ‘failing'.

The idiom is an old one, originating in ancient Greek mythology: when Achilles was a young boy, his mother was able to dip him in a pool of magic water that made him invulnerable (unable to be harmed).

When Achilles’ mother dipped him in the pool, she held him by the heel of his foot. The spot where she grasped him did not touch the water and was not rendered invulnerable.

Achilles grew up to be a great warrior (no surprise, because no one could harm him!) However, Achilles had a weak spot, his heel, and, when his enemies found out, they were able to defeat him. Thus, one’s “Achilles’ heel” is one’s weak spot.

Proverbs and aphorisms are expressions that communicate accumulated wisdom, beliefs or superstitions, as in the following:

“Many hands make light work.” This means that if many people work together the work becomes easier.

“Too many cooks spoil the broth.” This means that when too many people are in charge of something, the result may often not work out well.

“The road to hell is paved with good intentions.” This means that, although someone might be trying to help, often they can spoil the result (for example, because they don’t have enough information or because their good intentions conflict with another’s).

“An apple a day keeps the doctor away” This means that if you eat well and take care of yourself, you will be healthy and not need to see a doctor.

“A stitch in time saves nine.” This means that if you act swiftly enough in a situation, you might save a lot of later effort.

“Practice makes perfect” Which means the more you do something, the better you will become at it.

Clichés are expressions that have been used too often to describe some situation or circumstance. Writers only knowingly use a cliché when they can’t think of an original way of expressing themselves. College professors believe that students should not use clichés in their writing.

For example, the phrase, “a dog is man’s best friend”, is a cliché. So are the following:

“off the top of my head” (meaning without serious thought)

“from the heart” or “from the bottom of my heart” (meaning with sincere emotion)

There are several dictionaries of proverbs, clichés and idioms that are very useful for learning the meanings of these expressions. Furthermore, as you begin to read more and more, you will come across these expressions in different places. When you do, you should seek out an authority to help you determine the meanings. In other words,

Look it up!

END OF CHAPTER 10 GO TO THE CONCLUSION